SIPRI Background Papers

Quantum technology, based on quantum mechanics, is undergoing a ‘second quantum revolution’ that focuses on controlling individual particles to unlock disruptive applications in computing, communications and sensing. These advances promise major military and security benefits—such as ultra-secure communications, enhanced battlefield sensing and optimized logistics—but they also carry risks if adversaries gain a technological edge.

Governments worldwide are heavily investing in quantum research and development, reflecting its dual civilian and military nature. However, current systems remain error-prone and limited in scalability, while there are concerns over potential misuse. Moreover, key gaps persist in understanding how quantum tools might reshape arms control verification and international security.

Given the rapid pace of development, proactive policymaking and appropriate oversight measures are essential to harness quantum technology’s benefits while mitigating its risks.

To support states involved in the policy debate on military artificial intelligence (AI), this background paper provides a deeper examination of the issue of bias in military AI.

This paper outlines the state of play of the technical possibilities for inte­gration of advanced artificial intelligence into the nuclear domain.

Space systems are used for multiple civilian and military purposes, including missions related to nuclear deterrence. Consequently, real and perceived military operations targeting space systems may create pathways to nuclear escalation. 

This paper provides a broad overview of how multilateral peace operations have responded to cholera and Ebola epidemics and the HIV/AIDS and Covid-19 pandemics over the past 20 years. Such public health crises can be especially lethal in fragile and conflict-affected areas.

The Russian government has provided little information on military expenditure during the war with Ukraine that started in late February 2022. The Ministry of Finance stopped publishing detailed data on the implementation of the budget in April. However, for a brief period in August and September, the Federal Treasury did issue its usual reports on budget spending during the first half of the year and then to 1 August.

This SIPRI Background Paper provides an overview of the European Union Training Mission in Mali (EUTM Mali) and assesses its impact on Mali’s conflict dynamics since it was established in 2013. The third of three country-specific papers, it is part of a larger SIPRI project analysing the effectiveness of the EU’s training missions in Somalia, the Central African Republic and Mali. All three papers will feed into a synthesis paper that will offer a comparative analysis of the missions and recommendations for the way forward.

The third phase of the New Geopolitics of Peace Operations (NGP) initiative seeks to enhance understanding of how peace operations interact with non-traditional security challenges such as terrorism and violent extremism, irregular migration, piracy, organized crime and environmental degradation and resource scarcity. It aims to identify the various perceptions, positions and interests of the relevant stakeholders.

This report provides an overview of the European Union Training Mission in the Central African Republic (EUTM RCA) and assesses its impact on the country's conflict dynamics since it was established in 2016.

Post-shipment on-site inspections of exported military materiel enable an exporting country to verify that the materiel is still present in the country of destination and in the possession of the authorized end user. An increasing number of European countries are conducting on-site inspections, or are considering or planning to adopt such measures. A wide range of multilateral organizations already include the implementation of on-site inspections as part of their guidance documents.